The Black Death The Worst Event in European History

The Black Death was an epidemic which spread across almost all of Europe in the years 1346-53. The plague killed over a third of the entire population. It has been described as the worst natural disaster in European history and is responsible for changing the course of that history to a great degree. There is no dispute that the Black Death, otherwise known as the â€Å"Great Mortality, † or simply â€Å"The Plague,† was a trans-continental disease which swept Europe and killed millions during the fourteenth century. However, there is now argument over exactly what this epidemic was. The traditional and most widely accepted  answer is the bubonic plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia Pestis, which scientists found in samples taken from French plague pits where bodies were buried. Transmission Yersinia Pestis was spread through infected fleas which lived first on black rats, a type of rat which is happy to live near humans and, crucially, on ships. Once infected, the rat population would die off, and the fleas would turn to humans, infecting them instead. After three to five days of incubation, the disease would spread to the lymph nodes, which would swell into large-blister like ‘buboes’ (hence ‘bubonic’ plague), usually in the thigh, armpit, groin, or neck. 60 - 80% of those infected would die within another three to five days. Human fleas, once blamed quite heavily, in reality, contributed only a fraction of cases. Variations The plague could turn into a more virulent airborne variant called pneumonic plague, where the infection spread to the lungs, causing the victim to cough up blood which could infect others. Some people have argued this aided the spread, but others have proven it wasn’t common and accounted for a very small amount of cases. Even rarer was a septicemic version, where the infection overwhelmed the blood; this was nearly always fatal. Dates The main instance of the Black Death was between 1346 to 1353, although the plague returned to many areas again in waves during 1361-3, 1369-71, 1374-75, 1390, 1400, and after. Because extremes of cold and heat slow the flea down, the bubonic version of the plague tended to spread during the spring and summer, slowing right down during winter (the lack of many winter cases across Europe is cited as further evidence the Black Death was caused by Yersinia Pestis). Spreading The Black Death originated in the northwest shores of the Caspian Sea, in the land of the Mongol Golden Horde, and spread into Europe when the Mongols attacked an Italian trading post at Kaffa in the Crimea. Plague struck the besiegers in 1346 and then entered the town, to be carried abroad when the traders hurriedly left on ships the next spring. From there the plague traveled rapidly, through rats and fleas living on board ships, to Constantinople and other Mediterranean ports in the thriving European trade network, and from there through the same network inland. By 1349, much of Southern Europe had been affected, and by 1350, the plague had spread into Scotland and north Germany. Overland transmission was, again, either via rat or fleas on people/clothing/goods, along communication routes, often as people fled the plague. The spread was slowed by cool/winter weather but could last through it. By the end of 1353, when the epidemic reached into Russia, only a few small areas such as Finland and Iceland had been spared, thanks largely to only having a small role in international trade. Asia Minor, the Caucasus, the Middle East, and North Africa also suffered. Death Toll Traditionally, historians accept that there were variations in the rates of mortality as different areas suffered slightly differently, but roughly one-third (33%) of Europe’s entire population succumbed between 1346-53, somewhere in the region of 20-25 million people. Britain is often quoted as losing 40%. Recent work by O.J. Benedictow has produced a controversially higher figure: he argues that mortality was surprisingly consistent across the continent and that, in reality, three-fifths (60%) perished; roughly 50 million people. There is some dispute about urban versus rural losses but, in general, the rural population suffered as heavily as the urban ones, a key factor given that 90% of Europe’s population lived in rural areas. In England alone, deaths rendered 1000 villages unviable and survivors left them. While the poor had a higher chance of contracting the disease, the rich and noble still suffered, including King Alfonso XI of Castile, who died, as did a quarter of the Pope’s staff at Avignon (the papacy had left Rome at this point and hadnt yet returned). Medical Knowledge The majority of people believed the plague was sent by God, largely as a punishment for sins. Medical knowledge in this period was insufficiently developed for any effective treatments, with many doctors believing the disease was due to ‘miasma,’ the pollution of the air with toxic matter from rotting material. This did prompt some attempts to clean up and provide better hygiene – the King of England sent a protest at the filth in London’s streets, and people were afraid of catching the illness from affected corpses – but it didn’t tackle the root cause of rat and flea. Some people seeking answers turned to astrology and blamed a conjunction of the planets. â€Å"End† of the Plague The great epidemic ended in 1353, but waves followed it for centuries. However, medical and governmental developments pioneered in Italy had, by the seventeenth century, spread across Europe, providing plague hospitals, health boards, and counter-measures; plague consequently decreased, to become unusual in Europe. Consequences The immediate aftermath of the Black Death was a sudden decline in trade and a halt to wars, though both of these picked up soon after. More long term effects were the reduction of land under cultivation and a rise in labor costs due to the vastly reduced laboring population, who were able to claim higher remittance for their work. The same applied to skilled professions in towns, and these changes, coupled with a greater social mobility, have been seen to underpin the Renaissance: with fewer people holding more money, they allotted more funds toward cultural and religious items. In contrast, the position of landowners weakened, as they found labor costs to be much more, and encouraged a turn to cheaper, labor-saving devices. In many ways, the Black Death sped up the change from the medieval to the  modern era. The Renaissance began a permanent change in Europes life, and it owes a great deal to the horrors of the plague. Out of decay comes forth sweetness indeed. In Northern Europe, the Black Death affected culture, with an artistic movement focusing on death and what happens after, which stood in contrast to the other cultural trends in the region. The church was weakened as people grew disillusioned when it proved unable to satisfactorily explain or deal with the plague, and many inexperienced/swiftly educated priests had to be rushed into filling the offices. Conversely, many often richly endowed churches were built by grateful survivors. The Name Black Death The name ‘Black Death’ was actually a later term for the plague, and may derive from a mistranslation of a Latin term which means both ‘terrible’ and ‘black’ death; it has nothing to do with the symptoms. Contemporaries of the plague often called it â€Å"plaga,† or â€Å"pest†/†pestis.†

The Corner Stones Of A Social Work - 1280 Words

Advocacy is the corner stones of a social work profession and a vital role for the professions future. More importantly, it is a form of self-care because one of the hardest things about social work practice, at least for me, is feeling helpless as I watch clients struggle with an irrational and unfair system. We go into this profession to help others and to help save lives, which serves the true purpose. Margaret Wheatley reminds us that, â€Å"Relationships are all there is. Everything in the universe exists because it is in relationship to everything else. Nothing exists in isolation. We have to stop pretending we are individuals that can get it alone†. Indeed, human relationships are of paramount importance and should be at the heart of all good social workers practice. I had the opportunity to volunteer at an In-Town Senior Living Assistance Center. An elderly man, who recently suffered a stroke, stated, â€Å"It must be difficult to believe that at one point I was an athlete.† In his particular case he had weakness in his lower extremities, which significantly impaired his balance leaving him temporarily dependent of a wheelchair. With genuine sincerity his therapist immediately replied, â€Å"Life happens.† There is no doubt that the transition into adult social care has not only signaled as one of the most comprehensive reforms of quality service delivery in terms of its introduction and successful implementation, but also presents major challenges for our ageing society and ourShow MoreRelated Foreshadowing in Shirley Jacksons The Lottery Essays1152 Words   |  5 PagesForeshadowing in Shirley Jacksons The Lottery      Ã‚  Ã‚   The Lottery, a short story written by Shirley Jackson, is a tale about a disturbing social practice.   The setting takes place in a small village consisting of about three hundred denizens.   On June twenty-seventh of every year, the members of this traditional community hold a village-wide lottery in which everyone is expected to participate.   Throughout the story, the reader gets an odd feeling regarding the residents and their annual practiceRead MoreAnalysis Of Taj Mahal1640 Words   |  7 Pagesparadise is an image of Islam. 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Valuation and Financial Statement System †Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about the Valuation and Financial Statement System. Answer: Introduction: Boral limited is a building and construction company based in Australia, Asia Pacific and America. Its main materials of construction are lime, oxides, decorative concrete, stone and structural timber limited (Allman and Escobar de Nogales, 2015). It is also involved in property activities and transport for its products. Ratios Formulae 2014 2015 2016 Net profit margin Net Income * Net Sales 189.875/3197.62= 0.059 196.733/3289.813= 0.006 163.15/4194.03= 0.039 Asset turnover Sales/ total assets 3197.62/4302.23= 0.74 3289.813/4489.96= 0.74 4194.03/5233.33= 0.80 Current ratio Current Assets Current Liabilities 1249.17/876.46= 1.42 1332.96/706.71= 1.89 1566.96/1101.6= 1.42 Quick ratio Cash + Accounts Receivable Current Liabilities 335.32+462.67/876.46= 0.91 387.18+504.77/706.71= 1.26 360.7+663.4/1101.6= 0.93 Debt ratio Total debt/ total assets 1701.6/4302.2= 0.395 1792.3/4489.9= 0.399 2081.4/5233.3= 0.397 Cash cycles A measure of how Boral limited converts its products into cash through its daily sales and is measured through inventory, receivables and payables and back to the cash again. Inventory being Current Inventory / Operating Revenue * 365 = 2016=413.65/3197.6*365= 47.22 2015=411.66/3289.8*365= 45.67 2014=497.15/4194.03*365= 43.26 Accounts payables being Creditors / Operating Revenue * 365 = 2016= 450.87/3197.6*365 =51.46 2015=491.06/3289.8*365 = 54.48 2014=610.49/4194.03*365 = 53.13 Accounts Receivables being Debtors / Operating Revenue * 365 = 2014=663.4/4194.03*365 = 57.73 2015=504.77/3289.8*365 = 56 2016=462.67/3197.6*365 = 52.81 Cash conversion cycle= inventory + receivables-Payables 2016= 47.22+ 52.81-51.46 = 48.57 days 2015= 45.67+ 56-54.48 = 47.19 days 2014= 43.26+ 57.73- 53.13 = 47.86 days Need and Usefulness of Financial Ratios There are different financial reasons to meet the needs of users. Each of these reasons has certain purposes. The following are examples of the most typical financial ratios used by different stakeholders (Balasundaram, 2012). The elements that limit and make difficult the financial analysis are those of accounting type, such as the comparison of the financial statements, the reconstruction of the accounting concepts, the reclassification of the items according to short and long term temporal criteria, the lack of Information in terms of average values, imprecision and reformulation of concepts, window dressing effect, among others (Lead With Cash, 2010). On the other hand, we take into account that the valuation of the financial analyst in seeking to obtain information for the setting of investment and financing criteria in a market or sector that presents inflationary problems, causes the analysis to develop with distorted figures, that even if they are repressed By any method, there are substantial differences in valuation and significant disagreements over whether they are restated through the maintenance of financial capital or physical capital (Sagner, n.d.). In an interesting work, this indicates that financial analysis, although irreplaceable to learn from the past, is nevertheless insufficient in itself for real decision-making, since experience has shown that situations of the past are not perpetuated. In addition, this researcher adds that the analysis of changes in the relative value of the different elements of the financial statements is ineffective if there are conceptual and technical problems (Vinturella and Erickson , n.d.). Hence we approach this type of problem to obtain a greater scope in our conclusions. Limitations Another common limitation is the dispersion of the data, since it is usually only possible to use a measure of central tendency as the average of the sector and this is insufficient. That is why financial analysis currently includes two very important types of techniques in its new structure: decomposition measures and statistical classification models. The first statistical technique allows the analyst to determine how the elements of a structure are distributed to analyze the changes that occur over time in the structure. These decomposition measures are based on the analysis of the amount of accounting information. The application of decomposition measures within the analysis of the financial statements is an opportunity to know if the company maintains its structure stable over time, or to be able to locate its weaknesses in relation to its sector (Sagner, n.d.). CSR ltd is a listed company in the ASX that produces building materials and products. It was founded in 1855 as a colonial sugar refining company. In this report, we shall analyze certain ratios of this company and compare it with Boral ltd, a company that is in the same building industry and compare how the two companies are doing in relation to one another (Wingard-Nelson, 2012). The ratios show that the company is performing well as its ratios fall within what the optimal ratios should be. RATIO FORMULAE 2014(millions) 2015(millions) 2016(millions) Net profit margin Net income/Net sales 99.1/511.4=0.194 146.7/654.5=0.224 169.3/771.5=0.219 Asset turnover Sales /Total Assets 1746.6/2008.3=0.869 2023.4/2119.3=0.955 2298.8/2215.8=1.03 Current ratio Current Assets/ Current Liabilities 635.5/425.2=1.49 704.9/466.3=1.51 785.7/488.8=1.61 Quick Ratio (Cash+Accounts Receivables)/Current Liabilities (5.9+54)/425.2=0.14 (68.4+51.4)/466.3=0.26 (73.1+319.6)/488.8=0.81 Debt Ratio Total Debt/ Total Assets 851.1/2008.8=0.42 913.3/2119.3=0.43 898.6/2215.8=0.41 Cash cycles This is a metric that is used to measure a companys management effectiveness and the overall health of the company (Wingard-Nelson, 2012). It measures how fast cash in hand can be converted into accounts payable and inventory, through accounts receivable and sales and then back into cash. 2014 2015 2016 Inventory being Current Inventory / Operating Revenue * 365 (326.4+66.1)/511.4*365=280 days (320+76.2)/654.5*365=220days (348.8+72.7)/771.5*365=199days Accounts Receivablesbeing Debtors / Operating Revenue * 365 (251.1+54)/511.4*365=217.7 days (268.7+51.4)/654.5*365=178.5days (319.6+51.3)/771.5*365=175.5days AccountsPayables being Creditors / Operating Revenue * 365 (195+5.4)/511.4*365=143 days (236.8+16.3)/654.5*365=141.1days (260.6+18.9)/771.5*365=132.2days Cash conversion cycle= 355 days 257 days 243 days This company should work towards reducing its cash conversion cycle days. References Allman, K. and Escobar de Nogales, X. (2015). Impact investment. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Balasundaram, N. (2012). Ratio analysis. [Place of publication not identified]: Lap Lambert Academic Publ. Lead With Cash. (2010). World Scientific. Sagner, J. (n.d.). Working capital management. Schmidlin, N. (2014). The art of company valuation and financial statement analysis. Chichester: John Wiley Sons. Vinturella, J. and Erickson, S. (n.d.). Raising entrepreneurial capital. Wingard-Nelson, R. (2012). Percents and ratios. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers.